Summary_PLLT_chapter 5_ part 3

 

Chapter 5. Individual Differences (Part 3)

 

 

Compensatory Strategies

Background) Some language learners possess a “knack” for gaining communicative control of a second language. These learners have special insights into compensatory strategies. They can compensate for their weakness and avoid various pitfalls.

-       Compensatory Strategies: making up for gaps between one’s ability that could break communication

1)    Avoidance

-       Preventing a linguistic weakness to avoid breaking down communicative flow

-       Combination of face saving and maintaining communication

a.     Syntactic Avoidance: avoiding using uncomfortable syntactic structure

b.     Phonological Avoidance: avoiding using the word that the learner cannot pronounce

c.     Lexical Avoidance: avoiding using an uncomfortable word

d.     Topic Avoidance: avoiding talking about uncomfortable topic

2)    Circumlocution

-       Using a definition of an object or idea instead of using the exact word

-       Ex) Mom, I want to take out the ice cream from (the thing that makes everything turn into ice.) – Freezer

3)    Approximation

-       Using an alternative term that expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible

4)    Word Coinage

-       Creating non-existent L2 word based on a supposed rule

-       Ex) Cook+ ‘-er’ for someone who cooks for living instead of ‘Cook’

5)    Nonverbal Signals

-       Nonlinguistic signals such as mime, gestures, facial expression … 

6)    Prefabricated Patterns

-       Using memorized stock phrases without internalized knowledge of their components

-       Usually related with survival

-       Memorized by rote to fit a context

-       Ex) Memorizing “I don’t speak English” before traveling abroad

7)    Code Switching

-       Using L1 or L3 word with L1 or L3 pronunciation while speaking L2

-       Exception: advanced L2 learners with same L1 language might mix L1 and L2 together – this is not because of compensation to fill in the missing gap

-       Ex) “I want to have some 과자” instead of saying “I want to have some snack”

8)    Appeal to Authority

-       Asking for help either directly or indirectly

9)    Keeping the Floor

-       Using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think

-       Ex) Well, Um, Uh…

Research on Learning Strategies

Background) Scholars attempt to theorize L2 strategies, pushing toward a theory of language learning strategies. 

Efforts were especially put on answering three questions; how to categorize the strategies, how effective the strategies are cross-culturally, and how to measure strategy use.

1)    Identifying Types of Strategy

-       Studies separate strategies for acquiring the four skill – reading, listening, writing, speaking

-       The four skills are divided into two groups: learning strategies (reading and listening), communication strategies (writing and speaking)

a.     Learning (Input) strategies: 

-       Listening Skills

□ O’Mallye et al. (1989): monitoring, elaboration, inferencing

□ Other scholars: selective attention to keywords, advance organizers, using worksheet etc.

-       Reading Skills

□ bottom-up and top-down processing, predicting, guessing from context, brainstorming, summarizing

b.     Communication (Output) Strategies 

-       3 views / definition of communication strategies

a.      Potentially conscious plans for solving what an individual thinks as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal

b.      Communication strategies have compensatory nature

c.      Currently, communication strategies = elements of an overall strategic competence

2)    Cross-Cultural Issues

-       There were critical views on the effectiveness of strategy use cross-culturally

-       There were studies on whether cross-cultural factors facilitate or interfere with strategy among leaders

-       Extensive numbers of studies strategy learning (+autonomous learning) = success to language learning

3)    Measuring Strategy Use

a.     Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

-       Invented by Oxford (1990)

-       Used world-widely

-       50 items, 6 categories, each presenting possible strategy, five-point scale

-       Ex) Category B - I practice the sounds of English 

-       Limitations

a.      SILL is done in self-reporting way – Could be many incorrect claims, learners might forget to remember the strategies they’ve used before

b.      Learners might not understand the strategy being named

4)    The Effectiveness of Strategy Instruction

-       There are mounting evidence of how useful the strategies are when incorporated in classroom learning process

-       Three basic forms of strategy training

a.     Textbook-embedded instruction: student textbook + teacher’s manual

b.     Self-help strategy training: student manuals that promote to be autonomous

c.     Strategies-based advice (hints, tips) + teacher’s planned (or impromptu) classroom procedures

-       All three forms were demonstrated to be effective for learners

 

Strategies-Based Instruction

Background) A lot of terms, such as learning strategy instruction and styles- and strategies-to classroom instructions (SSBI), are used to describe the application of strategies to classroom learning. More simply, strategies-based instruction (SBI) is used in this book.

-       Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI): application of strategies to classroom learning

-       More importantly, SBI is teaching learners how to learn

-       Why is SBI (learner strategies) crucial?

a.      Wenden (1985) SBI is the key to learner autonomy

b.      Chamot (2005) SBI needs to contain explicit instruction to facilitate autonomy

-       How can learners benefit from SBI?

a.      Students need to understand the strategy itself

b.      Perceive it to be effective

c.      Do not think of implementation of the strategy to be overly difficult

-       Three objectives of SBI

a.      Identifying learners’ strategies & linking them with potential strategies

b.      Incorporating SBI in communicative language courses

c.      Providing extra-class assistance for learners

 

1)    Stimulating Awareness

-       Before teaching / showing strategies to students, learners need to understand their learner styles and be aware that there are many kinds of strategies

-       Learners could check their own preferences in learning by taking Styles Awareness Checklist (SAC)

-       The SAC is designed to highlight a major tenet in a list of “good language learner characteristics. 

-       The 10 maxims highlighted in SAC: lower inhibition, encourage risk-taking, build self-confidence, develop intrinsic motivation, engage in cooperative learning, use right-brain processes, promote ambiguity tolerance, practice intuition, process error feedback, set personal goals 

-       Ex) Learners can check only one box that describes them. Boxes A and E would indicate that the sentence is highly like learners. Boxes C would indicate that learners have no indication one way or another. 

This questionnaire is used to encourage engagement in cooperative learning.

-       Through this self-checking test, learners can understand that there are different kinds of learning styles.

-       Possibly, learners will think about potential strategies that are beneficial for themselves.

2)    From Awareness to Action

-       After SAC, it is essential to ask the learners why they responded as they did and share feelings underlying their responses.

-       Some possible activities to engage in after SAC: 

an informal tabulation of how people responded to each item, advice based on a teacher’s experience, explanation on why some strategies are successful or successful, reaching the consensus that responses in A and B categories are usually successful.

-       How to move from awareness to action – strategy awareness modules 

a.      Textbook: use of “Hints for Learning”, “Did You Know?” boxes 

b.      Manuals: teachers can write short, simple manuals for learners that are designed to raise their awareness and offer multiple strategic options

c.      Methodology: SBI is not just done in text forms. Teachers can utilize techniques as communicative games, rapid reading etc, engaging in their own SBI as an integral part of their methodology

It is essential to help students understand why they are doing such activities and learn to find successful strategies beyond the classroom.

-       Building strategic techniques

Good Language Learner Characteristic	Strategic Techniques
To lower inhibitions	-Play guessing games / communicative games   -Do role plays / skits   -Use plenty of group work   -Have students share their fears in small groups
To encourage risk taking	-Praise students for trying out language   -Use fluency exercises without error correction   -Give homework to speak or write the language outside of classroom
To build students’ self-confidence	-Tell students that you (the teacher) believe in them   -Have students list their strengths / accomplishments they’ve made during the course
To help students develop intrinsic motivation	-Remind students about the rewards for learning English   -Help students find rewards for themselves outside of the classroom
To promote cooperative learning	-Direct students to share their knowledge   -Do a considerable amount of small-group work
To encourage students to use right-brain processing	-Use movies in class   -Do skimming exercises   -Do oral fluency exercises without correction
To promote ambiguity tolerance	-Encourage students to ask you (teacher), each other questions   -Keep theoretical explanation short
To help students use their intuition	-Praise students for good guesses   -Do not always explain students’ errors (= let students catch and correct each other’s errors)
To get students to make their mistakes work for them	-Tape-record students’ oral production and get them to identify their own errors   -Get students to correct each other’s errors (=do not always give students the correct form)
To get students to set their goals	-Explicitly encourage students to go beyond classroom goals   -Have students to make weekly plan for what they will accomplish outside of classroom

 

3)    From Classroom Action to Autonomy

-       Most importantly, actions should not be limited to the classroom.

-       Most successful learners are self-motivated to learn and use the language well beyond a classroom.

-       Teachers need to help students reach toward autonomy by raising awareness of styles and strategies, teaching students that styles and strategies can aid them in the authentic use of the language.